TIMELINE: ANCIENT ROME PAGE VI

50 CE-300 CE

Provides a chronological index of the history of Ancient Rome with extensive links to internet resources. Emphasis is placed upon the use of primary source material and new perspectives upon the roles of women in ancient time.

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The timeline is divided chronologically into eight sections:
This symbol indicates a link to a primary source text

c. 55 - c. 117 CE || Cornelius Tacitus

An essential Roman historian, wrote:

c. 109 CE || The Histories

"the rare happiness of times, when we may think what we please, and express what we think"

"when it became essential to peace, that all power should be centered in one man, these great intellects passed away. Then too the truthfulness of history was impaired in many ways; at first, through men's ignorance of public affairs, which were now wholly strange to them..."

and

109 CE || The Annals

"Augustus won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of repose, and so grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates, and the laws"

60-61 CE || The Rebellion of Boudicca

Boudicca was queen of the Iceni, who were a Celtic tribe living in Britain. Discontented with Roman subjugation, they revolted, and put up a strong resistance to the Roman military. A significant number of Iceni warriors were women. They were eventually defeated by Paulinus Suetonius.

The incident is described by Tacitus, Annals, Book XIV :

On the opposite shore stood the Britons, close embodied, and prepared for action. Women were seen running through the ranks in wild disorder; their apparel funeral; their hair loose to the wind, in their hands flaming torches, and their whole appearance resembling the frantic rage of the Furies. The Druids were ranged in order, with hands uplifted, invoking the gods, and pouring forth horrible imprecations. The novelty of the fight struck the Romans with awe and terror. They stood in stupid amazement, as if their limbs were benumbed, riveted to one spot, a mark for the enemy. The exhortations of the general diffused new vigor through the ranks, and the men, by mutual reproaches, inflamed each other to deeds of valor. They felt the disgrace of yielding to a troop of women, and a band of fanatic priests; they advanced their standards, and rushed on to the attack with impetuous fury.

| Laocoon and the Serpents | Marble | Vatican Museum, Rome | 1st Cen. CE |

The Britons perished in the flames, which they themselves had kindled. The island fell, and a garrison was established to retain it in subjection. The religious groves, dedicated to superstition and barbarous rites, were leveled to the ground. In those recesses, the natives [stained] their altars with the blood of their prisoners, and in the entrails of men explored the will of the gods. While Suetonius was employed in making his arrangements to secure the island, he received intelligence that Britain had revolted, and that the whole province was up in arms.

| Iceni Warrior | Silver Coin | Britain | 61 CE |

Boudicca, in a [chariot], with her two daughters before her, drove through the ranks. She harangued the different nations in their turn: "This," she said, "is not the first time that the Britons have been led to battle by a woman" ...She took the field, like the meanest among them, to assert the cause of public liberty, and to seek revenge for her body seamed with ignominious stripes, and her two daughters infamously ravished. From the pride and arrogance of the Romans nothing is sacred; all are subject to violation; the old endure the scourge, and the virgins are deflowered...

According to some writers, not less than eighty thousand Britons were put to the sword. The Romans lost about four hundred men, and the wounded did not exceed that number. Boudicca, by a dose of poison, [ended] her life.

62-113 CE || Pliny the Younger

Roman official, published nine books of letters, nephew of Pliny the Elder.

79 CE || Eruption of Vesuvius

 

Pompeii was demolished by eruption in the first century, and the site was first excavated in 1748 by Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The dog which you see here was preserved by archeologists who, upon excavating Pompeii, filled cavities left by the eruption's victims with cement.

| Artifact | Remains of a Dog | Cement | 79 CE |

 

c. 155-225 CE|| Tertullian

Tertullian was an early Christian moralist who converted from paganism c. 195. He was skeptical of Greek philosophy and wrote on topics such as the injustice of persecuting Christians. Especially valuable is the insight he provides towards the origins and character of gladiatorial games, spectacles, and theatrical events.

| Police Verso (Thumbs Down) | Oil on Canvas | Jean-Leon Gerome |

| Phoenix Art Museum | 1872 CE |

Read:

De Spectaculis (The Spectacles)

De Spectaculis is important for a number of reasons. It provides an account of the origins of gladiatorial contests, it describes the events which took place there, and further, it reveals the growing discordance between Christians and Romans.

As a very early Christian, Tertullian condemns gladiatorial events not so much for their barbarity as for their idolatry. He explains:

"...it shall be proved true that the entire apparatus of the spectacles originates from idolatry...they belong to the Devil and his pomp and his angels because of the idolatry involved."

He then proceeds to cite in detail the many pagan influences and traditions to be found at the games and concludes:

"Take note, O Christian, how many unclean deities have taken possession of the circus."

Tertullian also attempts to provide an account of the origin of gladiatorial contests:

"...the origins of the spectacles, ...are somewhat obscure and, therefore, unknown among most of our people... the real issue is idolatry. For, since the games also went under the general name of Liberalia, they clearly proclaimed the honor of Father Liber. They were first held in honor of Liber by the country folk because of the blessing which they say he bestowed upon them by making known to them the delicious taste of wine."

His attitude towards Romulus clearly reveals the schism between early Christians and traditional Romans:

Romulus consecrated the Ecurria (games), derived from "equi" (horses), to Mars, though they claim the Consualia as well for Romulus on the ground that he consecrated them to Consus, the god, as they will have it, of counsel, to wit, of that very counsel by which he arrived at the scheme of carrying off the Sabine girls to be wives for his soldiers.

A noble counsel, indeed, even now considered just and lawful among the Romans themselves, not to say in the eyes of a god! For, also, this tends to stain their origin, lest you think something good that, had its origin in evil, in shamelessness, violence and hatred, in a founder who was a fratricide and the son of Mars.

Gladiatorial contests, in their beginnings, were customarily held at funerals:

"...in time long past, in accordance with the belief that the souls of the dead are propitiated by human blood, they used to purchase captives or slaves of inferior ability and to sacrifice them at funerals... Thus they found consolation for death in murder."

Tertullian despises the theatre as much as he despises the games, saying:

"the theater's greatest charm is above all produced by its filth."

He further provides some insight for us towards the manner in which prostitution took place:

"Even the very prostitutes, the victims of public lust, are brought upon the stage, creatures feeling yet more wretched in the presence of women, the only members in the community who were unaware of their existence; now they are exhibited in public before the eyes of persons of every age and rank; their address, their price, their record are publicly announced, even to those who do not need the information, and (to say nothing of the rest) things which ought to remain hidden in the darkness of their dens so as not to contaminate the daylight."

c. 204 CE b. Ruled 218-222||Elagabalus

 

"Who could tolerate an emperor who indulged in unnatural lusts of every kind, when not even a beast of this sort would be tolerated?" Aelius Lampridius

| Elagabalus | Silver Denarius | Ca. 218-222 |

 

Elagabalus, who took this name from the deity of the cult of the Syrian sun god of the city of Emesa, was born Varius Avitus Bassianus. Elagabalus was a high-priest of this cult. He became emperor at the age of 14. During his reign, to promote a popular and positive image, he adopted the prestigious name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Elagabalus is considered one of the most eccentric Roman emperors, which by Roman standards, is quite remarkable.

Elagabalus became emperor in a coup, supported by rebel legionaries and likely instigated to a large extent by his powerful mother, Julia Soaemias. These soldiers overthrew the troops of Macrinus, the reigning emperor, and declared Elagabalus emperor in 218.

Elagabalus was heavily involved in the Syrian cult of the sun, and brought back to Rome a conical black stone which was revered by the cult. The stone was said to have fallen from the heavens. He built a temple on the Palatine Hill, named the Elagaballium, to house the sacred stone. He also ordered the sacred fire of Vesta to be moved here. Animal sacrifices would take place at this new temple, and important officials, including senators, were required to wear Phoenician clothes while in attendance. Many Romans were offended by the importance given to this Eastern, untraditional, and non-Roman cult. A testament to the fact that Elagabalus was both politically myopic and completely out of touch with Roman sensibilities is demonstrated by his devising of plans to make Rome monotheistic, which would mean that the sun god Elagabalus would be the supreme and only god.

He held the position of Pontifix Maximus as well as creating a new, higher ranking position which he also held, called the sacerdos amplissimus Dei Solis Elagabali. He reputedly tortured and sacrificed human victims, preferring young noble boys, an observed their entrails for signs of divination.

While Elagabalus' religious beliefs served to alienate him from both the masses and the aristocracy, it was his sexual antics which ultimately led to his characterization of one of the basest of emperors. Roman historians were not kind to those emperors whom they disliked, and one is cautioned that they did undertake propaganda campaigns against individuals such as Elagabalus. Nevertheless, Elagabalus' eccentric behavior is corroborated by Cassius Dio, Herodian, and the Historia Augusta. He is said to have been a transvestite, to have paraded around the palace in women's jewelry and clothes, and to have acted as a female prostitute. His servants apparently were assigned the task of procuring male clients for him.

Equally scandalous was his marriage to the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquillia Severa. They were eventually divorced, on account of the indignation which this union inspired amongst the people of Rome. He also married a statue of Urania, the moon goddess. According to Cassius Dio, Elagabalus, as a woman, also married "Hierocles, a Carian slave once the favorite of Gordius from whom he learned to drive a chariot". He offered a substantial sum of money to any palace physician who could physically change his body to that of a woman.

Not surprisingly Elagabalus had rivals, the foremost being his cousin Bassianus, who later became the emperor Alexander Severus. When he ordered a proscription against Bassianus, and his supporters, his soldiers refused. Instead, on March 11, 222, they had Elagabalus, along with his mother murdered and thrown in the Tiber. Alexander Severus was declared emperor in his place.

Read:

Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book LXXX

Aelius Lampridius, The Life of Elagabalus Antoninus

c. 240 CE b. Ruled 266-273||Zenobia

 

Zenobia was an ancient queen of the Eastern city of Palmyra who became a substantial threat to the Roman empire. The philosopher Longinus was her personal tutor. She was said to be quite beautiful, and was highly intelligent, speaking numerous languages, and competently ruling her domain. Some see her ambition as her downfall.

| Zenobia | Silver Antoninianus | Ca. 270 |

Her husband, king Odenathus, had successfully developed Palmyra, an oasis city on the trade route between China, Persia, and Rome, to the point of it being the economic and cultural centre of the east.

After his death by assassination, Zenobia began an expansion of Palmyrian territory, which came to include eastern Asia Minor, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, and even Egypt. While Odenathus had for years been an important ally to Rome, Zenobia sought to take advantage of the Roman empire's precariousness, largely as a result of the preoccupation with frontier tribal wars, to expand her own empire.

The fragility of the Roman empire during the time of Zenobia's rule is exemplified by the fact that the Roman emperor Valerian (ruled 253Ð60) had even been captured by Shapur I, the king of Persia. Shapur reputedly used Valerian as his personal footstool, and he died in custody.

Later, when Aurelian (ruled 270-275) became emperor, he undertook a campaign to destroy Zenobia's ambitions. According to the ancient historian Vopiscus, Aurelian, campaigning in the East, wrote to her and demanded her surrender. In Zenobia's response, she made reference to the fact that Cleopatra, whom she claimed as an ancestor, committed suicide rather than allowing herself to be captured by the Romans, and confidently asserted that she would be the one victorious, given her alliances. Vopiscus has Zenobia state that "the Persians do not abandon us, and we will wait their succors. The Saracens and the Armenians are on our side. The brigands of Syria have defeated your army, O Aurelian; what will it be when we have received the reinforcements which come to us from all sides?".

Aurelian was not intimidated. He surrounded Palmyra and cut Zenobia off from her allies. The Palmyrian cavalry was said to be more powerful than the Roman's, and the soldiers wore heavy armor. In an adroit piece of military strategy, Aurelian had his army pretend to flee, and the Palmyrian's readily gave chase. When they became exhausted, Aurelian turned, and routed his cavalry behind the enemy. They were soundly defeated.

Zenobia attempted to escape, but was captured. Aurelian did not want to put a woman to death, and took her back to Rome, were she was paraded in his triumph wearing chains of gold. She was given a pension and a palace outside of Rome, at a villa in Campania, where she spent her final years.

Read:

Vopiscus: Aurelian's Conquest of Palmyra

 

c. 250 CE b. Ruled 284-305|| Diocletian

Rose from a lower standing in society to become his Emperor's bodyguard, waged successful military campaigns, became Emperor himself in 284.

Diocletian's writings include the:

| Decree against the Manichaeans

"The immortal gods have so designed things that good and true principles have been established by the wisdom and deliberations of eminent, wise and upright men. It is wrong to oppose these principles, or desert the ancient religion for some new one, for it is the height of criminality to try and revise doctrines that were settled once and for all by the ancients, and whose position is fixed and acknowledged."

Diocletian instituted reforms in an attempt to preserve an empire which had experienced a century of tumult. His attempt to preserve, regardless of how positive one might choose to regard his genius, contributed not to preservation, but instead, cemented the Empire's transformation to Medievalism.

The organization of Roman society had changed, and would continue to change, in a radical way and in essential aspects. Its economy, political structure, ideology, and spirituality were concurrently transformed.

The complexity of this evolution is not limited solely to the factors cited here, but to begin, Diocletian realized that the administration of the Empire had become cumbersome due to its size, and he divided it in half. The western half was governed by Maximian in Rome, while the eastern half would be ruled by Diocletian himself, from Nicomedia. Gone then was the centre of Empire and its autocratic leadership. Its militaristic underpinnings could never exist as they had in the past.

A further essential aspect in this transformation, and illustrative of the ideological shift which it represents, is Diocletian's insistence in being titled Domus ("Lord"), rather than Emperor, which signifies the growing acceptance of Christian constructs upon society. The Empire was becoming a shadow of incipient Medievalism, just as in centuries past, the Republic had become a shadow of the Empire.

The transformation from Ancient to Medieval society was more complex than a simple decline and fall.

 

The timeline is divided chronologically into eight sections:
This symbol indicates a link to a primary source text

 

Click here to learn the real story

behind the events and characters portrayed in the movie Gladiator.